I. Introduction

Body positivity is defined as a social movement and mindset that promotes self-acceptance and the celebration of diverse body types, rejecting societal beauty standards and unrealistic body expectations (Breda-Vicentini, L 2020). Examining these factors sheds light on how modern influences impact young adults' mental well-being and societal perceptions of body image, offering insights for tailored interventions and encouraging inclusive understanding across diverse cultural contexts. Studies have attempted to understand the relationship between age, gender, social media use frequency, and the impact these factors have on body positivity.

For example, a study conducted by Damhorst et al., (1987), aimed to investigate disparities in body contentment among adolescent girls aged 14 to 18. Through principal components analysis of a body satisfaction measure completed by 751 high school cheerleaders, six distinct factors emerged, defining the adolescents' attitudes toward their bodies. These factors encompassed satisfaction levels related to various aspects such as the midsection and overall appearance, peripheral body parts, hair and face, mouth, hands, and height (Damhorst et al., 1987)). The analysis revealed a significant increase in satisfaction with the mouth as age progressed, while a similar but statistically nonsignificant trend was observed for peripheral body parts (Damhorst et al., 1987). These findings contrast with prior research that had reported no age-related variations in the body contentment of adolescents. The study suggests that the differing demands of roles and the physical maturation process experienced by cheerleaders might elucidate these variations linked to age (Damhorst et al., 1987).

Harriger (2015) suggested that societal concerns regarding dieting and body size have contributed to an upsurge in negative perceptions toward individuals who are obese. Their research revealed that girls as young as 3 years old hold comparable stereotypes about body size as those observed in adults. The findings suggest that while stereotyping related to body size is apparent by age 3, favorable attitudes toward thinness might develop before negative attitudes toward larger body sizes (Harriger 2015). The study discusses implications and outlines potential future directions for research involving preschool-aged children (Harriger, 2015)

Ross et al. (1989), examined age differences in body positivity; specifically, how older individuals deal with the physical changes linked to aging, both privately and publicly. The study involved 60 participants from St Louis University in Missouri and St Louis University Medical Center, half elderly (n = 30) and half young (n = 30), who were matched in terms of physical health, education, and depression. They were assessed on private body consciousness, public body consciousness, and body competence. Findings suggested that healthy older individuals tend to be more aware of their outward physical appearance and exhibit a more positive evaluation of their body competence compared to younger participants (Ross et al., 1989).

A study by Breda-Vicentini et al., (2021) investigated gender differences in body image. The researchers sought to establish a correlation between one's perception of their own body image and that of others. Utilizing a sample of 29 adults, students in Physical Education courses, researchers concluded that there was a statistically significant difference between men and women, with consistently higher average responses from women. Breda-Vicentini et al., (2020) concluded that body dissatisfaction was more evident among women, which somewhat confirms the comparative results of gender in the study. The researchers argue that the study finding underscores the continued influence of societal standards regarding body weight on individuals and their behaviors (Breda-Vicentini et al., 2020).

Lee et al. (2020) explored gender differences concerning body image and its relationship with Body Mass Index (BMI) and dietary intakes among students from the University of Nottingham. The sample consisted of 100 university students, and body image was assessed using the Body Shape Questionnaire developed by PJ Cooper and Figure Rating Scale developed by Stunkard et al. (2). Dietary intake was evaluated through meal practices and a 3-day dietary recall. Findings indicated that 80% of females desired a thinner body, while 28% of males desired a larger body size (Lee et al., 2020). The prevalence of body image dissatisfaction among all subjects was notably high at 89% and those dissatisfied with their body image exhibited significantly higher body image concerns compared to the satisfied group (Lee et al., 2020). Additionally, there was a positive correlation between BMI and body shape questionnaire scores. The BMI of the dissatisfied group was notably higher than the satisfied group. Gender disparities were observed in energy and nutrient intakes, with a considerable number of students not meeting Malaysian Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI). The study underscores the importance of nutrition interventions, emphasizing weight management and healthy eating habits (Lee et al., 2020).

A cross-sectional study by Wong et al., (2013) aimed to explore gender disparities and psychological factors associated with body shape concern, perception, and body weight perception among tertiary students in Northern Malaysia. The study involved a total of 1003 recruited students, comprising of 431 males and 572 females, with a mean age of 19.96 ± 1.51 years. Assessment tools such as the Body Shape Concern Questionnaire, Body Weight Perception Questionnaire, Body Shape Perception Questionnaire (Stunkard Silhouette Chart), Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (RSE), and Quality of Life measurement were utilized to evaluate participants' body image perceptions. The results indicated that more females than males exhibited concerns regarding their body shape, with females predominantly desiring a thinner body size and vice versa for males. Notably, there existed misperceptions concerning the opposite sex's perception of an attractive body shape. Overweight students tended to have lower levels of parental/peer acceptance, higher body shape satisfaction, reduced body weight/shape anxiety, and engaged in fewer body shape comparisons compared to other groups. Additionally, quality of life and self-esteem were negatively correlated with body satisfaction. The study's conclusion highlighted significant differences in how male and female Malaysian tertiary students perceive and are concerned with their body shape and weight, showcasing distinct perceptions between the genders (Wong et al., 2013).

Age and gender are not the only factors that have been shown to be related to body positivity. Social media, particularly platforms like Instagram, has gained immense popularity, especially among younger women. Baker (2018) conducted research aiming to understand how female college students utilize Instagram and how their usage patterns might impact their body image. This qualitative study involved conducting focus groups with 27 female college students to explore their experiences with Instagram. The findings highlighted that female college students primarily used Instagram for following others, viewing content, and posting their own photos (Baker 2018). Participants showed considerable effort in selecting and posting images, focusing on showcasing their best selves, and placing significance on engagement metrics such as likes and comments. According to (Baker et al., 2018), the study unveiled that participants were conscious of diverse beauty standards on social media, including variations across races and ethnicities, and exhibited efforts to adhere to these standards. Some reported experiencing body dissatisfaction while attempting to conform to these perceived "unrealistic" standards (Baker, 2018).

A study by Pritchard (2023), aimed to explore how three types of Instagram posts (idealized, body-positive, and nature images) influence body satisfaction and appreciation among both males and females. The study involved 371 emerging adults aged 18 to 29, who were assigned to view one of three sets of Instagram posts based on gender. Participants completed body image assessments before and after viewing the images. While the experimental conditions primarily affected post-test body satisfaction in females, focusing on the salience of the images and their impact on specific body parts revealed a negative effect on both males' and females' body perceptions after exposure to idealized Instagram images (Pritchard 2023). Conversely, viewing body-positive posts appeared to have a positive effect on the body perceptions of both genders (Pritchard 2023). Notably, females seemed to benefit more from body-positive images compared to idealized or nature images, whereas males responded more positively to non-idealized images, including body-positive or nature-themed images (Pritchard, 2023).

Rutter et al. (2023) conducted two experiments to analyze the impact of Instagram posts displaying body-positive, appearance-ideal, or appearance-neutral content on self-compassion among young women. They found that exposure to appearance ideals, such as fitspiration bodies and makeup faces, negatively affected state self-compassion and thoughts about the self, especially among individuals with low trait self-compassion or high disordered eating symptoms. Conversely, viewing body-positive content enhanced state self-compassion and had no adverse effects, even among those low in trait self-compassion or high in disordered eating symptoms. Furthermore, exposure to appearance ideals decreased self-compassion through self-critical thoughts and unfavorable self-comparisons, while body-positive content increased self-compassion by encouraging self-affirming thoughts. They stated that study expands their understanding of the impact of body-focused media on self-compassion, highlighting the importance of considering self-compassion as both an outcome and a moderator (Rutter et al., 2023).

The current study investigated how age, gender, and social media use frequency impacts body positivity among college students. The following hypotheses were tested: H1: Older college students (higher age groups) will have higher levels of body positivity compared to younger college students (lower age groups). H2: Female college students will report lower levels of body positivity compared to male college students. H3: College students who use social media more frequently will exhibit lower levels of body positivity compared to those who use it less frequently.

II. Research Study

Participants. Participants were recruited from a community college in New York. A total of 55 participants from Psychology course sections in Introduction to Psychology, Social Psychology, and Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology, taught by the same instructor completed the online questionnaire. They received one extra credit point in their course from their instructor for their voluntary participation. Participants were also recruited by research assistant, through various student clubs and activities on campus. These participants were not given extra credit. Sample represented ethnically and culturally diverse group, specifically: Black (Non-Hispanic/Latino) = 39% (12), White (Non-Hispanic/Latino) = 14% (6), Asian or Pacific, Islander = 27% (17), Hispanic/Latino = 18% (8), Other = 2% (1). The mean age of the participants was 25.52 (SD = 8.37), and the age range was 18-48. Participants were predominantly females, specifically, sample consisted of 68% (30) of females, 30% (13) of males, and Other/Trans financial = 2% (1) of those who identified as Other/Transgender. Given that the sample consisted of mostly students, majority reported they are unemployed 39% (17). About one third 34% (15) of participants disclosed being employed part-time, and 27% (12) reported they were employed full-time. More than half of the participating students, 57% (25) reported that they were of Western cultures, 36% (16) reported that they were of Eastern cultures and 7% (3) did not respond. Majority of participants, 68% (30) responded that they use social media frequently and 32% (14) reported that they did not. Most of the students, 51% (23) were of Health-Related Sciences major, 22% (10) reported their major as Liberal Arts, 21% (9) reported that they were STEM majors, 2% (1) reported their major as visual and performing arts (VAPA), and 2% (1) reported their major/QCC Academy was Business.

Method. This study utilized the survey/questionnaire data collection method to examine the relationship between body positivity and factors such as gender, age, and social media use frequency in college students. The dependent variable was the level of body positivity reported in college students.

Measures Used. The Rowe (2015) short-form version of the Body Self-Image Questionnaire [BSIQ-SF] was used to measure body positivity. The Body Positivity Scale consists of 27 items (the author, David A. Rowe, mentioned that the BSIQ should not be used for a summed "total body image" score. The scale consists of subscales and should not be used for a summed "total body image" score. Each subscale score ranges from a minimum of 3 to a maximum of 15. Sample questions from the body positivity scale included statements like: “ I think my body is unattractive.” and “I compare my body to people I’m close to (friends, relatives, etc.).” For this scale, participants responded on a scale of 1 through 5, with 1= not at all true of myself and 5 = completely true of myself. Item 1 should be reverse scored, i.e., a=5, b=4, c=3, d=2, and e=1.

Procedure. Each of the participants filled out an online questionnaire, which was created in Google forms. The questionnaire link was shared with students enrolled in above mentioned courses or events and activities. Before proceeding to complete the online survey, students were asked to read an informed consent in which they were assured that participation is strictly voluntary, that they have the right to refuse to participate, and that they have the right to withdraw at any time from this study at any point, without penalty. There was no deception used in this study. The true name of the scale was not withheld as bias was not a concern in this study. At the end of the online survey, each student was debriefed and thanked for their participation. All participating students were treated according to ethical standards.

III. Results

Hypotheses were tested using independent samples t-tests. An independent samples t-test is a statistical analysis used to compare the means of two independent groups to determine if there is a significant difference between them. The t-test evaluates two competing hypotheses – the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1). The null hypothesis posits that there is no significant difference between the means of the two groups, while the alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a significant difference. The t-test generates a t-statistic, which is a measure of how far apart the means of the two groups are relative to the variation within each group. A larger t-value indicates a larger difference between the groups.

Based on the results, most of our hypotheses were not confirmed. Specifically, contrary to prediction, older college students (M = 2.84, SD = .58) did not report significantly higher levels of body positivity compared to younger college students (M = 2.88, SD = .50), t (39) = .22, p = .41.

While female college students (M = 2.75, SD = .58) reported lower levels of body positivity compared to male college students (M = 3.01, SD = .29), t (41) = -1.57, p = .06, the difference was not statistically significant.

Finally, students who reported high frequency of social media usage (M = 2.94, SD = .47)) reported having significantly higher levels of body positivity compared to students who reported using social media infrequently or not at all (M = 2.64, SD = .59, t (42) = 1.82, p = .04. This finding contradicted our prediction.

IV. Discussion and Conclusion

The study investigated the relationship between body positivity reporting in college students and age, gender, and social media use frequency. It was predicted that older college students will have higher levels of body positivity compared to younger college students. However, the results revealed that older college students did not exhibit significantly elevated levels of body positivity as anticipated when compared to younger college students. The findings are also inconsistent with the studies conducted by Ross et al., (1989) who found that healthy older individuals tend to be more aware of their outward physical appearance and exhibit a more positive evaluation of their body competence compared to younger participants (Ross et al, 1989). Findings from the research carried out by Damhorst et al., (1987) suggested that the differing demands of roles and the physical maturation process experienced by cheerleaders might elucidate these variations linked to age (Damhorst et al., 1987). Another study that demonstrated inconsistency with our prediction was the study by Harriger (2015). The findings suggested that while stereotyping related to body size is apparent by age 3, favorable attitudes toward thinness might develop before negative attitudes toward larger body sizes (Harriger 2015).

Our second hypothesis predicted that female college students would report lower levels of body positivity compared to male college students. The results were consistent with our predictions stating that female students did report lower levels of body positivity compared to their male counterparts, though, the differences were not statistically significant. These findings are consistent with research by Breda-Vicentini et al., (2020) who found that body dissatisfaction was more evident among women, and they had a higher level of dissatisfaction than men. Our findings also support finds of Lee et al. (2020) whose research indicated that 80% of females desired a thinner body, while 28% of males desired a larger body size. The prevalence of body image dissatisfaction was notably high at 89%. Those dissatisfied with their body image exhibited significantly higher body image concerns compared to the satisfied group (Lee et al., 2020). The results from the study by Wong et al., (2013) suggest that more females than males exhibited concerns regarding their body shape, with females predominantly desiring a thinner body size and vice versa for males (Wong et al., 2013). These studies were consistent with our predictions.

Furthermore, our final prediction was that college students who use social media more frequently will exhibit lower levels of body positivity compared to those who use it less frequently. However, our results revealed that students who frequently engaged with social media reported notably higher levels of body positivity compared to those who used social media infrequently or not at all. Thus, our finding did not support our hypothesis. Baker (2018) reported that participants of their study were conscious of diverse beauty standards on social media, including variations across races and ethnicities, and exhibited efforts to adhere to these standards. Some reported experiencing body dissatisfaction while attempting to conform to these perceived "unrealistic" standards (Baker, 2018). Pritchard (2023) suggested that while the experimental conditions primarily affected post-test body satisfaction in females, focusing on the salience of the images and their impact on specific body parts revealed a negative effect on both males' and females' body perceptions after exposure to idealized Instagram images. Conversely, viewing body-positive posts appeared to have a positive effect on the body perceptions of both genders. Notably, females seemed to benefit more from body-positive images compared to idealized or nature images, whereas males responded more positively to non-idealized images, including body-positive or nature-themed images (Pritchard, 2023).

Final comparison of our results on social media use frequency were with the findings by Rutter et al., (2023), who suggested that exposure to appearance ideals decreased self-compassion through self-critical thoughts and unfavorable self-comparisons, while body-positive content increased self-compassion by encouraging self-affirming thoughts. They stated that study expands their understanding of the impact of body-focused media on self-compassion, highlighting the importance of considering self-compassion as both an outcome and a moderator (Rutter et al., 2023).

V. Limitation/Future direction

Some limitations that might have affected the results include social desirability, students not taking the survey seriously, sample size not being representative of the population studied, and incentives (extra credit) might have been a bias factor. Future studies might consider increasing the sample size that includes equivalent percentages of individuals from the subgroups that exist within the population (i.e., gender, age, born in the U.S. vs. those who were not) by using stratified random sampling and using additional methods to reduce social desirability bias.

VI. References

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Baker, Nicole, "Focusing on college students' instagram use and body image" (2018). Open Access Master's Theses. Paper 1243. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/theses/1243.

Breda-Vicentini, L., Rossi, R., De-Bortoli, A. L., & De-Bortoli, R. (2020). "Body image perception: Gender differences among university students." Journal of Practical Studies in Education, 1(1), 15-19.

Damhorst, M. L., Littrell, J. M., & Littrell, M. A. (1987). "Age differences in adolescent body satisfaction." The Journal of Psychology, 121(6), 553-562.

Harriger, J. A. (2015). "Age differences in body size stereotyping in a sample of preschool girls." Eating Disorders, 23(2), 177-190.

Lee, Y. L., & Cheng, S. H. (2020). "Gender differences in body image, body mass index and dietary intake among university students." Pertanika J Soc Sci Humanit, 28, 2213-38.

Pritchard, M., & Button, A. (2023). "#Instabod versus #BoPo: An experimental study of the effects of viewing idealized versus body-positive content on collegiate males’ and females’ body satisfaction." Psychology of Popular Media. https://doi-org.qbcc.ezproxy.cuny.edu/10.1037/ppm0000454.

Ross, M. J., Tait, R. C., Grossberg, G. T., Handal, P. J., Brandeberry, L., & Nakra, R. (1989). "Age differences in body consciousness." Journal of Gerontology, 44(1), P23-P24.

Rutter, H., Campoverde, C., Hoang, T., Goldberg, S. F., & Berenson, K. R. (2023). "Self-compassion and women’s experience of social media content portraying body positivity and appearance ideals." Psychology of Popular Media. https://doi-org.qbcc.ezproxy.cuny.edu/10.1037/ppm0000453.supp (Supplemental).

Wong, L. M., & Say, Y. H. (2013). "Gender differences in body image perception among northern Malaysian tertiary students." British Journal of Medicine and Medical Research, 3(3), 727-747.